Desvio de caráter ou simplesmente humano? Economia comportamental aplicada ao comportamento desonesto

Diana Orghian, Gabriel Cabral, Andre Pinto, Alessandra Fontana

Abstract


Neste artigo, apresentamos uma abordagem de combate à corrupção e ao comportamento desonesto baseada na economia comportamental, psicologia cognitiva e psicologia social. A economia comportamental tem sido extensivamente aplicada à criação de políticas eficazes de alteração de comportamentos na área da saúde e educação, sendo, a aplicação ao combate à corrupção uma área ainda incipiente. Neste artigo, tendo por base uma revisão da literatura científica sobre o comportamento desonesto, demonstramos que as pessoas nem sempre agem de forma racional, coerente e previsível e nem sempre incorporam análises de custo-benefício nas suas decisões, tal como é previsto pelos modelos econômicos tradicionais. Também demonstramos que existem fatores inconscientes e mais sutis que podem estar contribuindo para o comportamento desonesto. Estes fatores são: i) a cognição humana e os vieses que afetam a tomada de decisão (racionalização motivada, licença moral, dissonância cognitiva etc.); ii) as características do contexto que nos podem influenciar em direção a determinado comportamento desonesto (ambiguidade nos procedimentos, falta de clareza, distância psicológica em relação ao dinheiro etc.); iii) os fatores sociais que decorrem da interação com as outras pessoas (reciprocidade, difusão da responsabilidade, normas sociais etc.). Uma vez conhecidos estes fatores, um rol de intervenções pode ser sugerido para conduzir as pessoas a agirem de forma mais honesta. Este artigo é direcionado a atores do setor público e privado interessados na temática do combate à corrupção e tem dois objetivos: i) descrever os fatores psicológicos que influenciam o comportamento desonesto e ii) apresentar soluções de fácil implementação e baixo custo (nudges), que podem ser integradas nas políticas de integridade e combate à corrupção.

Keywords


economia comportamental, heurísticas, desonestidade, nudge

References


ANDERS, G. Civil servants in Malawi: cultural dualism, moonlighting and corruption in the shadow of good governance. 2005. Thesis (PhD) – University of Rotterdam, Rotterdam, 2005.

AQUINO, Karl; REED II, Americus. The self-importance of moral identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Washington, v. 83, n. 6, p. 1423-1440, dez. 2002.

ARIELY, Dan. A mais pura verdade sobre a desonestidade. Rio de Janeiro: Elsevier, 2012.

ASHFORTH, Blake; ANAND, Vikas. The normalization of corruption in organizations. Research in Organizational Behavior, Amsterdam, v. 25, p. 1-52, 2003.

AYAL, Shahar; GINO, Francesca. Honest rationales for dishonest behavior. In: MIKULINCER, Mario; SHAVER, Philip (Org.). The social psychology of morality: exploring the causes of good and evil. Washington: American Psychological Association, 2012. p. 149-166.

BARKAN, Rachel et al. The pot calling the kettle black: distancing response to ethical dissonance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, Washington, v. 141, n. 4, p. 757-773, nov. 2012.

BARKAN, Rachel; AYAL, Shahar; ARIELY, Dan. Ethical dissonance: justifications, and moral behavior. Current Opinion in Psychology, New York, v. 6, p. 157-161, dec. 2015.

BAZERMAN, Max; LOEWENSTEIN, George; MOORE, Don. Why good accountants do bad audits. Harvard Business Review, Cambridge, v. 80, p. 96-103, nov. 2002.

BAZERMAN, Max; TENBRUNSEL, Ann. Blind spots: why we fail to do what’s right and what to do about it. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011.

BOWLES, Samuel; GINTIS, Herbert. Schooling in capitalist America: educational reform and the contradictions of economic life. Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2011.

BURSZTYN, Leonardo et al. Moral incentives in credit card debt repayment: evidence from a field experiment. The National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper, n. 21611, nov. 2017.

CAIN, Daylian; LOEWENSTEIN, George; MOORE, Don. The dirt on coming clean: perverse effects of disclosing conflicts of interest. Journal of Legal Studies, Chicago, v. 34, n. 1, p. 1-25, jan. 2005.

CAIN, Daylian; LOEWENSTEIN, George; MOORE, Don. When sunlight fails to disinfect: understanding the perverse effects of disclosing conflicts of interest. Journal of Consumer Research, Chicago, v. 37, n. 5, p. 836-857, feb. 2011.

CARLSMITH, J. Merrill; GROSS, Alan. Some effects of guilt on compliance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Washington, v. 11, n. 3, p. 232-239, mar. 1969.

CLARKE, Ronald; FELSON, Marcus. Routine activity and rational choice: advances in criminological theory, v. 5, 1993.

FALK, Armin; SZECH, Nora. Organizations, diffused pivotality and immoral outcomes. 2013. Disponível em: https://polit.econ.kit.edu/downloads/papers/Falk_Szech_WP_2_Pivotality_Fal_Szech_DP-2.pdf. Acesso em: 2 maio 2018.

FOLTZ, Jeremy D.; OPOKU-AGYEMANG, Kweku A. Do higher salaries lower petty corruption? A policy experiment on West Africa’s highways. 2015. Disponível em: http://cega.berkeley.edu/assets/miscellaneous_files/Opoku-Agyemang_WGAPE_2015.pdf.

GINO, Francesca; AYAL, Shahar; ARIELY, Dan. Contagion and differentiation in unethical behavior: the effect of one bad apple on the barrel. Psychological Science, California, v. 20, n. 3, p. 393-398, mar. 2009.

GINO, Francesca; AYAL, Shahar; ARIELY, Dan. Self-serving altruism? The lure of unethical actions that benefit others. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Amsterdam, v. 93, p. 285-292, set. 2013.

GINO, Francesca; PIERCE, Lamar. Dishonesty in the name of equity. Psychological Science, Washington, v. 20, n. 3, p. 1153-1160, set. 2009.

GNEEZY, Uri; IMAS, Alex; MADARÁSZ, Kristóf. Conscience accounting: emotion dynamics and social behavior. Management Science, Maryland, v. 60, n. 11, p. 2645-2658, ago. 2014.

HAMMAN, John; LOEWENSTEIN, George; WEBER, Roberto. Self-interest through delegation: an additional rationale for the principal-agent relationship. American Economic Review, Tennessee, v. 100, n. 4, p. 1826-1846, set. 2010.

HARE, Robert. Psychopathy: a clinical and forensic overview. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, Amsterdam, v. 29, n. 3, p. 709-724, set. 2006.

HARFORD, Tim. The logic of life: the rational economics of an irrational world. New York: Random House, 2008.

HENRICH, Joseph, et al. “Economic man” in cross-cultural perspective: behavioral experiments in 15 small-scale societies. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, New York, v. 28, n. 6, p. 795-855, dez. 2005.

HOUSER, Daniel; VETTER, Stefan; WINTER, Joachim. Fairness and cheating. European Economic Review, Amsterdam, v. 56, n. 8, p. 1645-1655, nov. 2012.

HSEE, Christopher. Elastic justification: how tempting but task-irrelevant factors influence decisions. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Amsterdam, v. 62, n. 3, p. 330-337, jun. 1995.

HSEE, Christopher. Elastic justification: how unjustifiable factors influence judgments. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Amsterdam, v. 66, n. 1, p. 122-129, abr. 1996.

KALANTHROFF, Eyal; ASLAN, Chen; DAR, Reuven. Washing away your sins will set your mind free: physical cleansing modulates the effect of threatened morality on executive control. Cognition and Emotion, London, v. 31, n. 1, p. 185-192, 2017.

KUNDA, Ziva. The case for motivated reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, Washington, v. 108, n. 3, p. 480-498, nov. 1990.

LAMBSDORFF, Johann. Behavioural and experimental economics as a guidance to anticorruption. In: SERRA, Danila; WANTCHEKON, Leonard (Org.). New advances in experimental research on corruption. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2012. p. 279-300.

LAMBSDORFF, Johann. Preventing corruption by promoting trust: insights from behavioral science. Passauer Diskussionspapiere: Volkswirtschaftliche Reihe, Passau, v. 69, n. 15, p. 1-16, 2015.

LOEWENSTEIN, G.; SUNITA, Sah; CAIN, Daylian. The unintended consequences of conflict of interest disclosure. The Journal of the American Medical Association, Chicago, v. 307, n. 7, p. 669-670, fev. 2012.

MARQUETTE, Heather; PEIFFER, Caryn. Corruption and collective action. Research Paper 32. Developmental leadership programme and U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre. Disponível em: http://publications.dlprog.org/CorruptionandCollectiveAction.pdf.

MAZAR, Nina; AMIR, On; ARIELY, Dan. The dishonesty of honest people: a theory of self-concept maintenance. Journal of Marketing Research, Chicago, v. 45, n. 6, p. 633-644, dez. 2008.

MAZAR, Nina; ARIELY, Dan. Dishonesty in everyday life and its policy implications. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, Chicago, v. 25, n. 1, p. 117-126, mar. 2006.

MEAD, Nicole et al. Too tired to tell the truth: self-control resource depletion and dishonesty. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, Amsterdam, v. 45, n. 3, p. 594-597, maio 2009.

MOORE, Celia; GINO, Francesca. Ethically adrift: how others pull our moral compass from true north, and how we can fix it. Research in Organizational Behavior, Amsterdam, v. 33, p. 53–77, 2013.

O’DONOGHUE, Ted; RABIN, Matthew. Doing it now or later. American Economic Review, Pittsburgh, v. 89, n. 1, p. 103-124, mar. 1999.

OECD. Recommendation of the Council for Development Co-operation Actors on Managing the Risk of Corruption: compendium of existing practices. DCD/DAC(2017)39. 2017. Disponível em: http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=DCD/DAC(2017)39&docLanguage=En.

PERSSON, Anna; ROTHSTEIN, Bo; TEORELL, J. Why anticorruption reforms fail: systemic corruption as a collective action problem. Governance, New Jersey, v. 26, n. 3, p. 449-471, jul. 2013.

PLONER, Matteo; REGNER, Tobias. Self-image and moral balancing: An experimental analysis. Journal of Economic Behaviors and Organization, Amsterdam, v. 93, p. 374-383, set. 2013.

PRUCKNER, Gerald; SAUSGRUBER, Rupert. Honesty on the streets: a field study on newspaper purchasing. Journal of the European Economic Association, New Jersey, v. 11, n. 3, p. 661-679, jun. 2013.

RANA Plaza owner jailed for three years over corruption. 29 August 2017. Disponível em: https://www. aljazeera.com/news/2017/08/rana-plaza-owner-jailed-years-corruption-170829161742916.html.

SACHDEVA, Sonya; ILIEV, Rumen; MEDIN, Douglas. Sinning saints and saintly sinners: the paradox of moral self-regulation. Psychological Science, Washington, v. 20, n. 4, p. 523-528, abr. 2009.

SAH, Sunita; LOEWENSTEIN G.; CAIN, Daylian. The burden of disclosure: increased compliance with distrusted advice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Washington, v. 104, n. 2, p. 289-304, fev. 2013.

SCHIKORA, Jan. Bringing the four-eyes-principle to the lab. 2011. Disponível em: https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/12160/1/The4EP_Schikora.pdf. Acesso em: 10 maio 2018.

SCHULZE, Günther; FRANK, Björn. Deterrence versus intrinsic motivation: experimental evidence on the determinants of corruptibility. Economics of Governance, Cham, v. 4, n. 2, p. 143-160, ago. 2003.

SHELDON, Oliver; FISHBACH, Ayelet. Anticipating and resisting the temptation to behave unethically. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, California, v. 41, n. 7, p. 962-975, jul. 2015.

SHU, L. et al. Signing at the beginning makes ethics salient and decreases dishonest self-reports in comparison to signing at the end. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Washington, v. 109, n. 38, p. 15197-15200, set. 2012.

SIEFF, Kevin. Low pay and one minor promotion for the most honest man in Afghanistan. The Washington Post, 31 jan. 2014. Disponível em: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/31/afghanistan-cor-ruption-honest-police-officer.

SIMON, H. A behavioral model of rational choice. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Cambridge, v. 69, n. 1, p. 99-118, fev. 1955.

SOUSA, Luís de. Corrupção. Lisboa: Fundação Francisco Manuel dos Santos, 2011.

THALER, Richard; SUNSTEIN, Cass. Nudge: como melhorar as decisões sobre saúde, dinheiro e felicidade. Lisboa: Academia do Livro, 2009.

WILTERMUTH, Scott. Cheating more when the spoils are split. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Amsterdam, v. 115, n. 2, p. 157-168, jul. 2011.

ZHONG, Chen-Bo; LILJENQUIST, Katie. Washing away your sins: threatened morality and physical cleansing. Science, Washington, v. 313, n. 5792, p. 1451-1452, set. 2006.




DOI: https://doi.org/10.5102/rbpp.v8i2.5342

ISSN 2179-8338 (impresso) - ISSN 2236-1677 (on-line)

Desenvolvido por:

Logomarca da Lepidus Tecnologia