Artificial Intelligence and international law: from recommendations to conventional regulation

Serhii Perepolkin, Andrii Kuchuk, Oksana Lehka, Liliia Labenska, Iya Stryzhak

Resumo


Artificial intelligence (AI) is one of the most relevant objects of scientific research. The purpose of the article is to cover the evolution of rule-making activities of international organizations on AI issues and determine the prospects for using soft law and hard law acts to externally consolidate the results achieved as a summary of its results. Using historical and logical methods, the history of the emergence of AI was investigated. Based on the methods of analysis and synthesis, the results of rule-making activities on AI issues carried out by the OECD, UNESCO, EU and CE were studied. The use of comparative and hermeneutic methods contributed to the study of the structure and content of soft law and hard law acts developed by international organizations in this area, etc. It is found out that the implementation of rule-making activities in the field of AI by international organizations has contributed to the expansion of the subject of legal regulation of international law at the expense of international relations on AI issues. The soft law and hard law acts analyzed in the article may in the future receive the status of global standards for regulating relations in the field of AI and, complementing each other, form the primary basis of a new field of international law called “International AI Law”.

Palavras-chave


Artificial intelligence, human rights, international law codification and progressive development, international organization, soft law, hard law

Texto completo:

PDF (English)

Referências


ABHIVARDHAN. The Wider Realm to Artificial Intelligence in International Law. SSRN, 2018. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3172280. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

ALMADA, Marco; RADU, Anca. The Brussels Side-Effect: How the AI Act Can Reduce the Global Reach of EU Policy. German Law Journal, v. 25, n. 4, p. 646–663, 2024.

Al-TAJ, Homam; POLOK, Beata; RANA, Afrasiab Ahmed. Balancing Potential and Peril: The Ethical Implications of Artificial Intelligence on Human Rights. Multicultural Education, v. 9, n. 6, p. 94–101, 2023.

ANGWIN, Julia. et al. Machine Bias. There’s software used across the country to predict future criminals. And it’s biased against blacks. ProPublica. 2016. Available at: https://www.propublica.org/article/machine-bias-risk-assessments-in-criminal-sentencing. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

BAKINER, Onur. The promises and challenges of addressing artificial intelligence with human rights. Big Data & Society, v. 10, n. 2, 2023. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517231205476. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

BALLARDINI, Rosa Maria; GENDEREN, Rob van den Hoven van Genderen; NOKELAINEN, Tomi. Legal incentives for innovations in the emotional AI domain: a carrot and stick approach? Journal of Intellectual Property Law & Practice, v. 19, n. 8, p. 658–667, 2024.

BARBOSA, Lutiana Valadares Fernandes. Artificial intelligence: a claim for strict liability for human rights violations. Brazilian Journal of International Law, v. 20, n. 2, p. 149–158, 2023.

BHUSHAN, Tripti. Artificial Intelligence, Cyberspace and International Law. Indonesian Journal of International Law, v. 21, n. 2, p. 281–314, 2024.

BIANCHI, Carmine; NASI, Greta; RIVENBARK, William C. Implementing collaborative governance: models, experiences, and challenges. Public Management Rev., v. 23, n. 11, p. 1581–1589, 2021.

BURRI, Thomas. International Law and Artificial Intelligence. German Yearbook of International Law, v. 60, p. 91–108, 2017.

CANCELA-OUTEDA, Celso. The EU's AI act: A framework for collaborative governance. Internet of Things, v. 27, 2024. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iot.2024.101291/. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

CASONATO, Carlo. Unlocking the Synergy: Artificial Intelligence and (old and new) Human Rights. BioLaw Journal - Rivista Di BioDiritto, v. 3, p. 233–240, 2023.

COUNCIL OF EUROPE. Chart of signatures and ratifications of Additional Protocol to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine, on the Prohibition of Cloning Human Beings (ETS № 168). Status as of 29/01/2023. 2023. Available at: https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=signatures-by-treaty&treatynum=168. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

COUNCIL OF EUROPE. Chart of signatures and ratifications of Additional Protocol to the Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine concerning Transplantation of Organs and Tissues of Human Origin (ETS № 186). Status as of 29/01/2023. 2023. Available at: https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=signatures-by-treaty&treatynum=186. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

COUNCIL OF EUROPE. Chart of signatures and ratifications of Additional Protocol to the Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine, concerning Biomedical Research (CETS № 195). Status as of 29/01/2023. 2023. Available at: https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=signatures-by-treaty&treatynum=195. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

COUNCIL OF EUROPE. Chart of signatures and ratifications of Additional Protocol to the Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine concerning Genetic Testing for Health Purposes (CETS № 203). Status as of 29/01/2023. 2023. Available at: https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=signatures-by-treaty&treatynum=203. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

COUNCIL OF EUROPE. Chart of signatures and ratifications of Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS № 164). Status as of 29/01/2023. 2023. Available at: https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=signatures-by-treaty&treatynum=164. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

COUNCIL OF EUROPE. Committee on Artificial Intelligence (CAI). Artificial Intelligence. 2024. Available at: https://www.coe.int/en/web/artificial-intelligence/cai. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

COUNCIL OF EUROPE. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine. 1997. Available at: https://rm.coe.int/168007cf98. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

COUNCIL OF EUROPE. Council of Europe Framework Convention on Artificial Intelligence and Human Rights, Democracy and the Rule of Law. Council of Europe Treaty Series - № [225]. 2024. Available at: https://rm.coe.int/1680afae3c. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

COUNCIL OF EUROPE. Newsroom. Council of Europe adopts first international treaty on artificial intelligence. Portal. Full News. 2024. Available at: https://www.coe.int/en/web/portal/-/council-of-europe-adopts-first-international-treaty-on-artificial-intelligence. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

COUNCIL OF EUROPE. The Framework Convention on Artificial Intelligence. Artificial Intelligence. 2024. Available at: https://www.coe.int/en/web/artificial-intelligence/the-framework-convention-on-artificial-intelligence. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

CYBER RISK GMBH. The Artificial Intelligence Act - Regulation (EU) 2024/1689. Cyber Risk GmbH, About us. 2024. Available at: https://www.artificial-intelligence-act.com/. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT. Artificial Intelligence Act: MEPs adopt landmark law. News European Parliament. 2024. Available at: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20240308IPR19015/artificial-intelligence-act-meps-adopt-landmark-law. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

EUROPEAN UNION. Artificial intelligence (AI) act: Council gives final green light to the first worldwide rules on AI. European Council. Council of the European Union. 2024. Available at: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2024/05/21/artificial-intelligence-ai-act-council-gives-final-green-light-to-the-first-worldwide-rules-on-ai/. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

EUROPEAN UNION. Ethics guidelines for trustworthy AI. European Commission. Shaping Europe’s digital future. 2019. Available at: https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/ethics-guidelines-trustworthy-ai. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

EUROPEAN UNION. European AI Office. European Commission. Shaping Europe’s digital future. 2024. Available at: https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/ai-office. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

EUROPEAN UNION. European Artificial Intelligence Act comes into force. European Commission. Shaping Europe’s digital future. 2024. Available at: digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/news/european-artificial-intelligence-act-comes-force. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

EUROPEAN UNION. European Centre for Algorithmic Transparency. European Commission. 2024. Available at: https://algorithmic-transparency.ec.europa.eu/index_en. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

EUROPEAN UNION. High-level expert group on artificial intelligence. European Commission. Shaping Europe’s digital future. 2022. Available at: https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/expert-group-ai. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

EUROPEAN UNION. Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down harmonised rules on Artificial Intelligence (Artificial Intelligence Act) and amending certain Union legislative acts. 2021. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A52021PC0206. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

EUROPEAN UNION. Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024 laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence and amending Regulations (EC) No 300/2008, (EU) No 167/2013, (EU) No 168/2013, (EU) 2018/858, (EU) 2018/1139 and (EU) 2019/2144 and Directives 2014/90/EU, (EU) 2016/797 and (EU) 2020/1828 (Artificial Intelligence Act). 2024. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32024R1689. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

EUROPEAN UNION. The European AI Alliance. European Commission. Shaping Europe’s digital future. 2024. Available at: https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/european-ai-alliance. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

FOX, Stephen. Beyond AI: Multi-Intelligence (MI) Combining Natural and Artificial Intelligences in Hybrid Beings and Systems. Technologies, v. 5, n. 3, p. 1–14, 2017.

FUTURE OF LIFE INSTITUTE. Asilomar AI Principles. (2017, August 11). Available at: https://futureoflife.org/open-letter/ai-principles/. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

FUTURE OF LIFE INSTITUTE. Beneficial AI 2017. (2017, January 12). Available at: https://futureoflife.org/event/bai-2017/. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

GARBOWSKI, Marcin. A critical analysis of the Asilomar AI principles. Zeszyty Naukowe Politechniki Slaskiej. Seria Organizacji i Zarzadzanie, v. 113, p. 45–55, 2017.

HACKER, Philipp. The European AI Liability Directives – Critique of a Half-Hearted Approach and Lessons for the Future. Computer Law & Security Review, v. 51, p. 1–42, 2023.

HO, Calvin Wai-Loon; CAALS, Karels. How the EU AI Act Seeks to Establish an Epistemic Environment of Trust. Asian Bioethics Review, v. 16, p. 345–372, 2024.

HOLZER, Harry. J. Understanding the impact of automation on workers, jobs, and wages. BROOKINGS. 2022. Available at: https://www.brookings.edu/articles/understanding-the-impact-of-automation-on-workers-jobs-and-wages/. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

KIESOW CORTEZ, Elif; MASLEJ, Nestor. Adjudication of Artificial Intelligence and Automated Decision-Making Cases in Europe and the USA. European Journal of Risk Regulation, v. 14, n. 3, p. 457–475, 2023.

KLONDIKE. AI history: the Dartmouth Conference. 2024. Available at: https://www.klondike.ai/en/ai-history-the-dartmouth-conference/. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

KURZWEIL NETWORK. Beneficial AI 2017. Beneficial AI conference develops ‘Asilomar AI principles’ to guide future AI research. (2017, December 1). Available at: http://www.kurzweilai.net/beneficial-ai-conference-develops-asilomar-ai-principles-to-guide-future-ai-research. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

LEE, Amanda. What is China’s social credit system and why is it controversial? South Chine Morning post. 2020. Available at: https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3096090/what-chinas-social-credit-system-and-why-it-controversial. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

LI, Shu; SCHÜTTE, Beatrice. The Proposed EU Artificial Intelligence Liability Directive: Does/Will Its Content Reflect Its Ambition? Technology and Regulation, v. 2024, p. 143–151, 2024.

LIVINGSTON, Steven; RISSE, Mathias. The Future Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Humans and Human Rights. Ethics & International Affairs, v. 33, n. 2, p. 141–158, 2019.

LUCAS, Amparo S. Artificial intelligence and the future of human rights. In: FLOREK, Iwona; KORONCZIOVÁ Andrea; MANZANO Jose Luis Zamora (ed.). Crisis as a challange for human rights. Bratislava: Publisher Comenius University, 2020. Available at: https://eurofur.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/22_Amparo-Salom.pdf. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

MAAS, Matthijs. M. International Law Does Not Compute: Artificial Intelligence and the Development, Displacement or Destruction of the Global Legal Order. Melbourne Journal of International Law, v. 20, n. 1, p. 1–29, 2019. p. 12.

MAHARDHIKA, Vita; ASTUTI, Pudji; MUSTAFA, Aminuddin. Could Artificial Intelligence be the Subject of Criminal Law? Yustisia Jurnal Hukum, v. 12, n. 1, p. 1–12, 2023.

MARSAN, Nadia; HIL, Steven. International law and military applications of Artificial Intelligence. JSTOR, p. 55–62, 2019. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/resrep19966.12.pdf. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

McCARTHY, John et al. A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence, August 31, 1955. AI Magazine, v. 27, n. 4, p. 12, 2006.

NAGY, Noemi. “Humanity's new frontier”: Human rights implications of artificial intelligence and new technologies. Hungarian Journal of Legal Studies, v. 64, n. 2, p. 236–267, 2024.

NATORSKI, Michal. Compromise in multilateral negotiations and the global regulation of artificial intelligence. Democratization, v. 31, n. 5, p. 1091–1116, 2024.

NEUWIRTH, Rostam. J. Law, artificial intelligence, and synaesthesia. AI & Soc, v. 39, n. 3, p. 901–912, 2024.

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT. OECD AI Principles overview. OECD AI. Policy Observatory. 2024. Available at: https://oecd.ai/en/ai-principles. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT. Recommendation of the Council on Artificial Intelligence of 22.05.2019. OECD. Legal. Instruments. OECD/LEGAL/0449. 2024. Available at: https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/oecd-legal-0449. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

OUTEDA, Celso Cancela. Artificial intelligence: new possibilities for relations between the EU and Mercosur. Brazilian Journal of International Law, v. 20, n. 2, p. 136–147, 2023.

PARISINI, Emanuele. The European Union in the race for Artificial Intelligence: a comparative analysis with US and China in non-market public services. Proceedings of the 25th Annual International Conference on Digital Government Research, p. 1040–1042, 2024. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1145/3657054.3659124. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

PECCHIA, Leandro et al. Artificial Intelligence, data protection and medical device regulations: squaring the circle with a historical perspective in Europe. Health Technol, v. 14, p. 663–670, 2024.

PEREPOLKIN, Serhii; BONIAK, Valentyna; YEFIMOVA, Inna; LABENSKA, Liliia; TRESKIN, Dmytro. The concept of the fourth generation of human rights: fact or perspective of scientific discourse. Brazilian Journal of International Law, v. 21, n. 2, p. 279–295, 2024.

RAMOS, Gabriela; SQUICCIARINI, Mariagrazia; LAMM, Eleonora. Making AI Ethical by Design: The UNESCO Perspective. Computer, v. 57, n. 2, p. 33–43, 2024.

RAZMETAEVA, Yulia; BARABASH, Yurii; LUKIANOV, Dmytro. The Concept of Human Rights in the Digital Era: Changes and Consequences for Judicial Practice. Access to Justice in Eastern Europe, v. 3, n. 15, p. 41–56, 2022.

REN, Qiang; DU, Jing. Harmonizing innovation and regulation: The EU Artificial Intelligence Act in the international trade context. Computer Law & Security Review, v. 54, 2024. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2024.106028. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

RISSE, Mathias. Human Rights and Artificial Intelligence: An Urgently Needed Agenda. Human Rights Quarterly, v. 41, n. 1, p. 1–16, 2019.

RISSE, Mathias. The Fourth Generation of Human Rights: Epistemic Rights in Digital Lifeworlds. Moral Philosophy and Politics, v. 8, n. 2, p. 351–378, 2021.

RODRIGUES, Rowena. Legal and human rights issues of AI: Gaps, challenges and vulnerabilities. Journal of Responsible Technology, v. 4, 2020. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrt.2020.100005. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

ROMERO, Lorayne Finol; VILLARROEL, Ivette Esis. Transparency of artificial intelligence in public administration: a review of international standards. Brazilian Journal of International Law, v. 21, n. 4, p. 167–191, 2024.

ROTENBERG, Marc. Human Rights Alignment: The Challenge Ahead for AI Lawmakers. In: Werthner, H., et al. Introduction to Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, 2024, р. 615. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-45304-5_38. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

ROUMATE, Fatima. Artificial Intelligence, Ethics and International Human Rights Law. The International Review of Information Ethics, v. 29(March), p. 1–10, 2021. Available at: https://doi.org/10.29173/irie422. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

SULEIMANOVA, Susanna. Comparative Legal Analysis of the Role of Artificial Intelligence in Human Rights Protection: Prospects for Europe and the Middle East. Pakistan Journal of Criminology, v. 16, n. 3, p. 907–922, 2024.

TAMÒ-LARRIEUX, Aurelia et al. Regulating for trust: Can law establish trust in artificial intelligence? Regulation & Governance, v. 18, n. 3, p. 780–801, 2024.

TROITINO, David Ramiro; KERIKMÄE, Tanel. The European Union Market, from analogue to digital. Lines for your interaction and enjoyment in the Latin American landmark. Brazilian Journal of International Law, v. 20, n. 2, p. 40-49, 2023.

U.S. DEPARTMENT Of STATE. Political Declaration on Responsible Military Use of Artificial Intelligence and Autonomy. 2023. Available at: https://www.state.gov/political-declaration-on-responsible-military-use-of-artificial-intelligence-and-autonomy-2/. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION. Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence. UNESCO. 2024. Available at: https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/recommendation-ethics-artificial-intelligence. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION. Ethics of Artificial Intelligence. The Recommendation. UNESCO. Artificial Intelligence. 2024. Available at: https://www.unesco.org/en/artificial-intelligence/recommendation-ethics. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION. Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence. UNESCO. Digital Library. 2024. Available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000381137. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION. Implementing the Recommendation. UNESCO. Artificial Intelligence. 2024. Available at: https://www.unesco.org/en/artificial-intelligence/recommendation-ethics. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION. Readiness Assessment Methodology. UNESCO. Global AI Ethics and Governance Observatory. 2024. Available at: https://www.unesco.org/ethics-ai/en/ram?hub=32618. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION. Ethical Impact Assessment. UNESCO. Global AI Ethics and Governance Observatory. 2024. Available at: https://www.unesco.org/ethics-ai/en/eia?hub=32618. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION. Women4Ethical AI. UNESCO. Artificial Intelligence. 2024. Available at: https://www.unesco.org/en/artificial-intelligence/women4ethical-ai?hub=32618. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION. Business Council for Ethics of AI. UNESCO. 2024. Available at: https://www.unesco.org/en/artificial-intelligence/business-council?hub=32618. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

VELLINGA, Nynke E. Rethinking compensation in light of the development of AI. International Review of Law, Computers & Technology, v. 38, n. 3, p. 391–412, 2024.

WALIA, Ivneet Kaur. Legal Implications of Artificial Intelligence in Outer Space Activities and Explorations. Brazilian Journal of International Law, v. 21, n. 4, p. 192–203, 2024.

ZARKA, Mara. Artificial Intelligence in the Military Domain: Technical, Legal, and Ethical Perspectives. VCDNP. 2024. Available at: https://vcdnp.org/ai-military-domain/. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

ZHA, Jiali. Artificial Intelligence in Agriculture. J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 1693 012058. 2020. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1693/1/012058. Access on: 22 оct. 2024.

ZILLER, Jacques. The Council of Europe Framework Convention on Artificial Intelligence vs. the EU Regulation: two quite different legal instruments. CERIDAP, v. 2, p. 202–227, 2024.




DOI: https://doi.org/10.5102/rdi.v21i3.9808

ISSN 2236-997X (impresso) - ISSN 2237-1036 (on-line)

Desenvolvido por:

Logomarca da Lepidus Tecnologia