Immunities of State Officials and the “Fundamentally Different Nature” of International Courts: the Appeals Chamber Decision in the Jordan Referral re Al-Bashir
Abstract
This article investigates the merits of this argument for the determination of the customary rule of immunities applicable to international jurisdictions. To this end, it analyzes the precedents of the international criminal tribunals, the Arrest Warrant case and the rationale behind immunities of state officials. It argues that a distinction must be made between those international courts that exercise jurisdiction on behalf of the international community and those that constitute a mere pooling of national jurisdictions, and that only in relation to the former the immunities enjoyed before domestic courts are not transferable. The intervention of the Security Council in its creation and the subject-matter jurisdiction can be relevant factors in establishing the nature of a court.
Regrettably, the Appeals Chamber has not engaged with this distinction and, as such, has failed to demonstrate that the ICC is itself an international court of a fundamentally different nature, a question that remains controversial.
Keywords
Full Text:
PDFReferences
AKANDE, Dapo. ICC Appeals Chamber Holds that Heads of State Have No Immunity Under Customary International Law Before International Tribunals [online]. 2019. Available at: https://www.ejiltalk.org/icc-appeals-chamber-holds-that-heads-of-state-have-no-immunity-under-customary-international-law-before-international-tribunals/ [accessed 2020-10-11].
AKANDE, Dapo. International Law Immunities and the International Criminal Court. American Journal of International Law. 2004, vol. 98, no. 3, pp. 407–433.
AKANDE, Dapo – SHAH, Sangeeta. Immunities of State Officials, International Crimes, and Foreign Domestic Courts. European Journal of International Law. 2010, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 815–852.
APTEL, Cécile. Some Innovations in the Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon. Journal of International Criminal Justice. 2007, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 1107–1124.
BABAIAN, Sarah. The International Criminal Court – An International Criminal World Court?: Jurisdiction and Cooperation Mechanisms of the Rome Statute and its Practical Implementation. Springer International Publishing, 2018.
BANTEKAS, Ilias. Criminal Jurisdiction of States under International Law. In: Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law [online]. 2011 Available at: https://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e1021?prd=MPIL [accessed 2020-10-16].
BASSIOUNI, M. Cherif. International Crimes: Jus Cogens and Obligatio Erga Omnes Accountability for International Crime and Serious Violations of Fundamental Human Rights. Law and Contemporary Problems. 1996, vol. 59, no. 4, pp. 63–74.
BATROS, Ben. A Confusing ICC Appeals Judgment on Head of State Immunity [online]. 2019. Available at: https://www.justsecurity.org/63962/a-confusing-icc-appeals-judgment-on-head-of-state-immunity/ [accessed 2020-10-18].
BEKOU, Olympia. International Criminal Justice and Security. In: FOOTER, Mary E et al. (eds.). Security and International Law. Hart Publishing, 2016, pp. 93–114.
CRYER, Robert (ed.). An Introduction to International Criminal Law and Procedure. Third edition. edition. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
DOHERTY, Heather Noel. Tipping the Scale: Is the Special Tribunal for Lebanon International Enough to Override State Official Immunity. Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law. vol. 43, p. 831-876.
FRANEY, Elizabeth Helen. Immunity from the Criminal Jurisdiction of National Courts. In: ORAKHELASHVILI, Alexander (ed.). Research Handbook on Jurisdiction and Immunities in International Law. Edward Elgar Publishing, 2015.
GAETA, Paola. Official Capacity and Immunities. In: CASSESE, Antonio – GAETA, Paola – JONES, John R.W.D. (eds.). The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Commentary. Oxford Public International Law, 2002, pp. 975–1002.
JACOBS, Dov. The Frog that Wanted to Be an Ox: The ICC’s Approach to Immunities and Cooperation. In: STAHN, Carsten (ed.). The Law and Practice of the International Criminal Court. Oxford University Press, 2015, pp. 281-302.
JACOBS, Dov. You have just entered Narnia: ICC Appeals Chamber adopts the worst possible solution on immunities in the Bashir case [online]. 2019. Available at: https://dovjacobs.com/2019/05/06/you-have-just-entered-narnia-icc-appeals-chamber-adopts-the-worst-possible-solution-on-immunities-in-the-bashir-case/ [accessed 2020-10-11].
KIYANI, A. G. Al-Bashir & the ICC: The Problem of Head of State Immunity. Chinese Journal of International Law. 2013, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 467–508.
KRESS, Claus. The International Criminal Court and Immunities under International Law for States Not Party to the Court’s Statute. In: BERGSMO, Morten – LING, Yan (eds.). State sovereignty and international criminal law. Beijing: Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher, 2012, pp. 223–265. FICHL publication series no. 15 (2012).
MCGOLDRICK, Dominic. Yugoslavia—The Responses of the International Community and of International Law. Current Legal Problems. 1996, vol. 49, no. 1, pp. 375–394.
METTRAUX, Guénaël – DUGARD, John – PLESSIS, Max du. Heads of State Immunities, International Crimes and President Bashir’s Visit to South Africa. International Criminal Law Review. 2018, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 577–622.
SADAT, Leila. Heads of State and Other Government Officials Before the International Criminal Court: The Uneasy Revolution Continues. Washington University in St. Louis Legal Studies Research Paper Series, Paper No. 19-01-12 [online]. 2019. Available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3321998 [accessed 2020-10-17].
SADAT, Leila. Why the ICC’s Judgment in the Al-Bashir Case Wasn’t So Surprising. In: Just Security [online]. 12. 7. 2019. Available at: https://www.justsecurity.org/64896/why-the-iccs-judgment-in-the-al-bashir-case-wasnt-so-surprising/ [accessed 2020-10-13].
SCHABAS, William A. Obama, Medvedev and Hu Jintao may be Prosecuted by International Criminal Court, Pre-Trial Chamber Concludes [online]. 2011. Available at: http://humanrightsdoctorate.blogspot.com/2011/12/obama-medvedev-and-hu-jintao-may-be.html [accessed 2020-10-11].
SCHABAS, William A. The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Is a ‘Tribunal of an International Character’ Equivalent to an ‘International Criminal Court’? Leiden Journal of International Law. 2008, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 513–528.
SCHABAS, William A. The UN International Criminal Tribunals: The Former Yugoslavia, Rwanda and Sierra Leone. Cambridge: University Press, 2006.
TUNKS, Michael A. Diplomats or Defendants - Defining the Future of Head-of-State Immunity Note. Duke Law Journal. 2002, vol. 52, no. 3, pp. 651–682.
UBÉDA-SAILLARD, Muriel. Foreign Officials Entitled to (Absolute) Personal Immunity during Their Time in Office. In: RUYS, Tom – ANGELET, Nicolas – FERRO, Luca (eds.). The Cambridge Handbook of Immunities and International Law. 1. edition. Cambridge University Press, 2019, pp. 481–495.
VAN DER WILT, Harmen. Immunities and the International Criminal Court. In: FERRO, Luca – ANGELET, Nicolas – RUYS, Tom (eds.). The Cambridge Handbook of Immunities and International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019, pp. 595–613.
Treaties
Charter of the United Nations. 1945.
Charter of the International Military Tribunal. 1945. UNTS vol. 82, p. 279.
Charter of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East. 1948.
Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations. 1961. UNTS vol. 500, p. 95.
United Nations Convention on Special Missions. 1969. UNTS vol. 1400, p. 231.
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. 1998. UNTS vol. 2187, p.3.
Agreement between the United Nations and the Royal Government of Cambodia concerning the Prosecution under Cambodian Law of crimes Committed During the Period of Democratic Kampuchea. 2003. UNTS vol. 2329, p. 117.
Case Law
International courts
ICJ. Arrest Warrant of April 11, 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v Belgium). Judgement. 2002. ICJ Reports 2002 p. 3
ICTY. Initial Indictment on Kosovo against Slobodan Milosevic and others. 22 May 1999. Case No IT-99-37.
ICTY. Prosecutor v Slobodan Milosevic, Decision on Preliminary Motions. 2001. Case No IT-02-54.
SCSL. Decision on Immunity from Jurisdiction (Prosecutor v Charles Gankay Taylor). 31 May 2004. Appeals Chamber. SCSL-2003-01-I.
ICC. Decision on the Prosecution’s Application for a Warrant of Arrest against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir (The Prosecutor v Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir). 4 March 2009. Pre-Trial Chamber I. ICC-02/05–01/09.
ICC. Second Warrant of Arrest for Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir (The Prosecutor v Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir). 12 July 2010. Pre-Trial Chamber I. ICC-02/05-01/09-95.
ICC. Corrigendum to the Decision Pursuant to Article 87(7) of the Rome Statute on the Failure by the Republic of Malawi to Comply with the Cooperation Requests Issued by the Court with Respect to the Arrest and Surrender of Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir (The Prosecutor v Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir). 13 December 2011. Pre-Trial Chamber I. ICC-02/05-01/09-139-Corr.
ICC. Decision pursuant to article 87(7) of the Rome Statute on the refusal of the Republic of Chad to comply with the cooperation requests issued by the Court with respect to the arrest and surrender of Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir (The Prosecutor v Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir). 13 December 2011. Pre-Trial Chamber I ICC-02/05-01/09-140.
ICC. Decision on the Cooperation of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Regarding Omar Al Bashir’s Arrest and Surrender to the Court. 9 April 2014. Pre-Trial Chamber II. ICC-02/05-01/09-195.
ICC, Decision on the non-compliance by the Republic of Djibouti with the request to arrest and surrender Omar Al-Bashir to the Court and referring the matter to the United Nations Security Council and the Assembly of the State Parties to the Rome Statute (The Prosecutor v Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir). 11 July 2016. Pre-Trial Chamber II. ICC-02/05-01/09-266.
ICC. Decision under article 87(7) of the Rome Statute on the non-compliance by South Africa with the request by the Court for the arrest and surrender of Omar Al-Bashir (The Prosecutor v Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir). 6 July 2017. Pre-Trial Chamber II. ICC-02/05-01/09-302
ICC. The League of Arab States’ Observations on the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan’s appeal against the ‘Decision under article 87(7) of the Rome Statute on the noncompliance by Jordan with the request by the Court for the arrest and surrender [of] Omar Al-Bashir’ (The Prosecutor v. Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir). 16 July 2018. Appeals Chamber. ICC-02/05-01/09.
ICC. Judgment in the Jordan Referral re Al-Bashir Appeal of 6 May 2019 (The Prosecutor v Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir). 2019. Appeals Chamber. ICC-02/05–01/09 OA2.
ICC. Joint Concurring Opinion issued by Judges Eboe-Osuji, Morrison, Hofmanski, and Bossa (The Prosecutor v Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir). 6 May 2019. Appeals Chamber. ICC-02/05-01/09-397-Anx1.
National case law
Spain. Castro case, Order of 4 March 1999. 1999. Audiencia Nacional. No. 1999/2723.
France, Ghaddafi case, Arrêt du 13 mars 2001. 2001. Cour de Cassation Crim. No. 1414. 125 ILR 490
Belgium. HSA et al v SA. 2003. Cour de Cassation 2e civile. P.02.1139.F. 42 ILR 596
UN Documents
Formulation of Nürnberg Principles. 1950. Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1950, Vol. II, p. 181. UN Doc. A/CN.4/22.
Text of the Nürnberg Principles Adopted by the International Law Commission. 1950. Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1950, Vol. II, pp. 374. UN Doc. A/CN.4/L.2.
UNSC Resolution 808 (1993), of 22 February. UN Doc. S/RES/1993.
Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to paragraph 2 of Security Council Resolution 808 (1993). 1993. UN Doc. S/25704.
Statute of the International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia since 1991. 1993. UN Doc. S/25704, Annex.
Final Report of the Independent Commission of Experts Established in Accordance with Security Council Resolution 935 (1994). Annex to Letter dated 9 December 1994 from the Secretary-General Addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc No S/1994/1405.
Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind with commentaries. 1996. Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its forty-eighth session (6 May - 26 July 1996), p. 7, UN Doc. A/51/10.
Statute for the Special Court for Sierra Leone. 2002. UNTS vol. 2178, p.137
KOLODKI, Roman Anatolevich, Special Rapporteur. International Law Commission. Preliminary Report on Immunity of State Officials from Foreign Criminal Jurisdiction. 2008. UN Doc. A/CN.4/601.
Immunity of State Officials from Foreign Criminal Jurisdiction, Memorandum by the Secretariat. International Law Commission. 2008. UN Doc. A/CN.4/596.
HERNÁNDEZ, Concepción Escobar, Special Rapporteur. International Law Commission. Second Report on the Immunity of State Officials from Foreign Criminal Jurisdiction. 2013. UN Doc. A/CN.4/661
Report of the International Law Commission, Sixty-ninth Session (1 May-2 June and 3 July-4 August 2017). UN Doc. A/72/10
HERNÁNDEZ, Concepción Escobar, Special Rapporteur. International Law Commission. Sixth Report on Immunity of State Officials from Foreign Criminal Jurisdiction. 2018. UN Doc. A/CN.4/722.
HERNÁNDEZ, Concepción Escobar, Special Rapporteur. International Law Commission. Eighth Report on Immunity of State Officials from Foreign Criminal Jurisdiction. 2020. UN Doc. A/CN.4/739.
UNSC Resolution 1593 (2005), of 31 March. UN Doc. S/RES/1593.
Miscellaneous
Commission on the Responsibility of the Authors of the War and on Enforcement of Penalties, Report Presented to the Preliminary Peace Conference. American Journal of International Law. 1920, no. 14, p. 95.
Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, Opinion and Judgement. Washington: United States Government Printing Offices, 1947.
Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal. Nürnberg, 1947.
Negotiated Relationship Agreement between the International Criminal Court and the United Nations. 2004. ICC-ASP/3/Res.1
INSTITUT DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL. Universal criminal jurisdiction with regard to the crime of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. 2005.
AFRICAN UNION. Decision on Africa’s Relationship with the International Criminal Court (ICC). 2013. Ext/Assembly/AU/Dec.1(Oct.2013).
Protocol on Amendments to the Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights. Adopted by the Twenty-third Ordinary Session of the Assembly, held in Malabo, Equatorial Guinea, 27 June 2014.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5102/rdi.v18i1.7256
ISSN 2236-997X (impresso) - ISSN 2237-1036 (on-line)
Desenvolvido por:
