International Law´s Premature Farewell to the Concept of War

Sven Peterke, Johannes van Aggelen

Resumo


According to the dominant view, the supposedly state-centric concept of war has been successively replaced after the Second World War by the concepts of use of force, aggression, and armed attack in international security law, on the one hand, and the concept(s) of armed conflict in international humanitarian law, on the other. Based on an analysis of post-war codifications, in particular, international human rights law, this article argues that it is yet still too premature to bid farewell to war as a concept that for centuries has shaped the practice and theory of international law. Rather, it should be treated as a dynamic umbrella concept recognizing that non-state actors may be capable of committing acts of war, i.e., armed attacks triggering a state´s inherent right to self-defence. As further explained by the authors, this 21st century concept of war might be located in international law´s general part, thus overstretching its different subareas and without altering the lex specialis-concepts contained therein.

Palavras-chave


Armed conflict; armed attack; warfare; belligerents; non-state actors.

Texto completo:

PDF (English)

Referências


REFERENCES:

ABRESCH, William. A Human Rights Law of Internal Armed Conflict: The European Court of Human Rights in Chechyna. European Journal of International Law, v. 16, n. 4, p. 741- 767, 2005.

ALOAIN, F.N. The Emergence of Diversity: Differences in Human Rights Jurisprudence. Fordham International Law Journal, v. 19, 101-142, 1995.

ARNOLD, Roberta. The Prosecution of Terrorism as a Crime against Humanity. Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht, v. 64, p. 979-1000, 2004.

BARTELS, Rogier. Timelines, borderlines and conflicts. The historical evolution of the legal divide between international and non-international armed conflicts. International Review of the Red Cross, v. 91, n. 837, p. 35-67, Mar. 2009.

BASSIOUNI, M. Cherif. The New Wars and the Crisis of Compliance with the Law of Armed Conflict by Non-State Actors. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, v. 98, n. 3, p. 711-810, 2008.

BEER, Yishai. Regulating Armed Reprisals: Revisiting the Scope of Lawful Self-Defense. Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, v. 59, n. 1, p. 117-168, 2020.

BLANK, Laurie R. Irreconcilable Difference: The Thresholds for Armed Attack and International Armed Conflict. Notre Dame Law Review, v. 96, n. 1, p. 249-289, 2020.

BOOTHBY, William H. Conflict Law. The Influence of New Weapons Technology, Human Rights and Emerging Actors. The Hague: Asser Press, 2014.

CASSESE, Antonio. International Law. 2nd ed. London/New York: OUP, 2003.

CHINKIN, Christine and KALDOR, Mary. International Law and New Wars. Cambridge: CUP, 2017.

CRAWFORD, Emily. Unequal before the Law: The Case for the Elimination of the Distinction between International and Non-international Armed Conflict. Leiden Journal of International Law, v. 20, n. 2, p. 441-465, 2007.

CORTEN, Olivier. The “Unwilling or Unable” Test: Has it Been, and Could it be, Accepted? Leiden Journal of International Law, v. 29, p. 777-99, 2016.

CORTEN, Olivier. The Law against War. The Prohibition on the Use of Force in Contemporary International Law. Oxford/Portland, Oregon: Hart Publ., 2010.

CULLEN, Anthony. The Concept of Non-International Armed Conflict. Cambridge: CUP, 2010.

DAASE, Christopher. Clausewitz on Small War. Oxford: OUP, 2015.

DETTER, Ingrid. The Law of War. 3rd ed. Surrey: Ashgate, 2013.

DINSTEIN, Yoram. Comments on War. Harvard Journal of Law & Public Policy, v. 27, n. 3, p. 877-892, 2004.

DINSTEIN, Yoram. War, Aggression and Self-Defense. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2005.

EPPLER, Erhard. Vom Gewaltmonopol zum Gewaltmarkt? Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp, 2002.

EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS. Tyrer v UK, Merits, App. No. 5856/72, A/26, 25 April 1978.

FITZPATRICK, Joan. Human Rights in Crisis: The International System for Protecting Human Rights During States of Emergency. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994.

GLAHN, Gerhard von; TAUBLEE, Janes L Law Among Nations: An Introduction to Public International Law. 11th ed. New York: Routledge, 2017.

GRANT, John. P.; BARKER, J. Craig. Parry & Grant Encyclopaedic Dictionary of International Law. 3rd ed. Oxford/New York: OUP, 2009.

GRAY, Christine. International Law and the Use of Force. Oxford: OUP, 2008.

GREEN, Leslie C. The Contemporary Law of Armed Conflict. 3rd ed. New York: Juris Publ., 2008.

GREENWOOD, Christopher. The Concept of War in Modern International Law. International Comparative Law Quartely, v. 36, n. 2, p. 283-306, Apr. 1987.

GREENWOOD, Christopher. Scope of Application of Humanitarian Law. In: FLECK, Dieter (ed.), The Handbook of International Humanitarian Law. 2nd ed. Oxford/New York: OUP, p. 45-78, 2008.

GRIGNON, Julia. The beginning of application of international humanitarian law: A discussion of a few challenges. International Review of the Red Cross, v. 96, n. 893, p. 139-162, 2014.

GROSSMAN, Claudio. A Framework for the Examination of States of Emergency under the American Convention on Human Rights. American University International Law Review, v. 1, n. 1, p. 35-55, 1986.

GROTIUS, Hugo. On the Law of War and Peace. De jure belli ac pacis (transl. Archibald C. Campbell), Altenmünster, Verlag J. Beck, 2001.

GUERCKE, Lene. State Responsibility for a Failure to Prevent Violations of the Right to Life by Organized Criminal Groups. Human Rights Law Review, v. 21, n. 2, p. 329-57, June 2021.

HELFER, Laurence R., HAFNER-BURTON, Emilie M and FARISS, Christopher J. Emergency and Escape: Explaining Derogations of Human Rights Treaties. International Organization, v. 65, p. 673-707, 2011.

HARBOM, Lotta and WALLENSTEIN, Peter. Patterns of major armed conflicts, 1997-2006. In: SIPRI Yearbook 2007: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security, Appendix 2A. Oxford: OUP, 2008, p. 69-88.

HENDERSON, Christian. Internal Strife and Insurgency. In: MELZER, Nils and GEISS, Robin (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of International Law of Global Security. Oxford: OUP, 2021, p. 158-175.

HENLEY, Jon and CHRISAFIS, Angelique. Paris Terror Attack: Hollande says ISIS atrocity was “act of war. The Guardian, 14 November 2015, available at www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/13/paris-attacks-shootings-explosions-hostages (visited 28 January 2022).

HIGGINS, Rosalyn. Internal war and international law. In: BLACK, Cyril E. and FALK, Richard A. (eds.). The Future of the International Legal Order. Vol. 3. Conflict Management. Washington D.C.: Princeton University Press, 1971. p. 81-121.

HOFFMAN, Michael H. Terrorists Are Unlawful Belligerents, Not Unlawful Combatants: A Distinction With Implications for the Future of International Humanitarian Law. Case Western Reserve Law Journal, v. 34, n. 2, p. 227-230, 2002.

HUMAN RIGHTS COMMITTEE. General Comment No. 29 (2001), U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add11 (2001).

INTER-AMERICAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS. The Right to Information on Consular Assistance in the Framework of the Guarantees of the Due Process of Law, Advisory Opinion, OC-16/99, Ser. A No. 16 (1999).

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE. Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States), Judgment of 27 June 1986, [1986] ICJ Rep., 14.

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE. Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion of 8 July 1996, [1996] ICJ Rep. 226, 240.

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE. Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion of 9 July 2004, [2004] ICJ Rep., 136.

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE, Armed Activities on the Territory of Congo (Dem. Rep. Congo v. Uganda), Judgment of 19 December 2005, [2005] ICJ Rep., 168.

INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT. Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga, Judgment pursuant to article 74 of the Statute, ICC-01/04-01/07, 7 March 2014.

INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA, Prosecutor v. Tadić, Appeal on Jurisdiction, No. IT-94-1-AR72, 2 October 1995.

INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA. Prosecutor v. Haradinaj, Trial Judgment, No. IT-04-84, 3 April 2008.

INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA. Prosecutor v. Boškoski, Trial Judgement, No. IT-04-82-T, 10 July 2008.

KALDOR, Mary. New and Old Was: Organized Violence in a Global Era. Cambridge: Polity, 1999.

KALSHOVEN, Frits and ZEGVELD, Liesbeth. Constraints on the Waging of War. An Introduction to International Humanitarian Law. 4th ed. Cambridge et al.: CUP, 2011.

KELLENBERGER, Jakob. Armed Conflicts, International Law, and Global Security. In: In: MELZER, Nils and GEISS, Robin (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of International Law of Global Security. Oxford: OUP, 2021, p. 254-271.

KLABBERS, Jann. International Law. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2017.

KLEFFNER, Jan K. The applicability of international humanitarian law to organized armed groups. International Review of the Red Cross, v. 93, n. 882, p. 443-461, 2011.

KRESS, Claus. On the Outer Limits of Crimes against Humanity: The Concept of Organization within the Policy Requirement: Some Reflection on the March 2010 Kenya Decision. Leiden Journal of International Law, v. 23, n. 4, p. 855-873, Dec. 2010.

MANCINI, Marina. The Effects of a State of War or Armed Conflict. In: WELLER, Marc (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Use of Force in International Law. London: OUP, p. 988-1013, 2015.

MCDOUGAL, Myers S. and FELICIANO, Florentino P. The Initiation of Coercion: A Multi-Temporal Analysis. American Journal of International Law, v. 52, n. 2, p. 241-259, Apr. 1958.

MCLAUGHLIN, Robert. Recognition of Belligerency and the Law of Armed Conflict. New York: OUP, 2020

MÉGRET, Frédéric. From Savages to Unlawful Combatants: A Postcolonial Look at International Law´s “Other”. In: ORFORD, Anne (ed.). International Law and Its Others. Cambridge: CUP, 2005, p. 265-317.

MELZER, Nils. Interpretative Guidance on the Notion of Direct in Hostilities Under International Humanitarian Law. Geneva: ICRC, 2009.

MICHAELSON, Christopher. Derogating from International Human Rights Obligations in the “War Against Terrorism”? – A British-Australian Perspective. Terrorism & Political Violence, v. 17, n. 1, p. 131-155, 2005.

MIKOS-SKUZA, Elzbieta. International Law´s Changing Terms: “War” becomes “Armed Conflict”. In: O´DONNELL, Mary E. (ed.). What is War? An Investigation in the Wake of 9/11. The Hague: Brill Nijhoff, p. 17-29, 2012.

MOIR, Lindsay. Reappraising the Resort to Force. International Law, Jus ad Bellum and the War on Terror. Oxford and Portland, Oregon: Hart Publ., 2010.

MÜLLER, Markus-Michael. Governing Crime and Violence in Latin America. Global Crime, v. 19, n. 3-4, p. 171-191, 2018.

MUSHKAT, Roda. Who May Wage War? An Examination of an Old/New Questions. American University Law Review, v. 2, n. 1, p. 97-151, 1987.

NEFF, Stephen C. War and the Law of Nations: A General History. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.

NOWAK, Manfred. U.N. Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. CCPR Commentary. 2nd ed. Kehl am Rhein: N.P. Engel, 2005.

O´KEEFE, Roger. International Criminal Law. Oxford: OUP, 2015

OPPENHEIM, Lassa. International Law: A Treatise, Vol. II, War and Neutrality. London et al.: Longmans, Green and Company, 1906.

ORAKHELASHVILI, Alexander. The Interaction between Human Rights and Humanitarian Law: Fragmentation, Conflict, Parallelism, or Convergence?. European Journal of International Law, v. 20, n. 1, p. 161-182, 2008.

PAULUS, Andreas and VASHAKMADZE, Mindia. Asymmetrical war and the notion of armed conflict – a tentative conceptualization. IRRC, v. 91, n. 873, p. 95-125, 2009.

PEJIC, Jelena. The protective scope of Common Article 3: more than meets the eye. International Review of the Red Cross, v. 93, n. 881, p. 189-225, 2011.

PETERKE, Sven. Urban Insurgency, “Drug War” and International Humanitarian Law: The Case of Rio de Janeiro. Journal of International Humanitarian Legal Studies, v. 1, n. 1, p. 165-187, 2010.

PETERKE, Sven and WOLF, Joachim. International Humanitarian Law and Transnational Organised Crime. In: HAUCK, Pierre and PETERKE, Sven (eds.). International Law and Transnational Organised Crime. Oxford: OUP, p. 381-405.

PICTET, Jean S. The Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949. Commentary. IV Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilians in Time of War. Geneva: ICRC, 1958.

PILLOUD, Claude and DE PREUX, Jean. Art. 49. In: SANDOZ, Yves, SWINARSKI, Christophe and ZIMMERMANN, Bruno (eds.). Commentary on the Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949. Norwall, M.A. (USA), Martinus Nijhoff Publ., 1987.

POLICANTE, Amedeo. Hostis Humani Generis: Pirates and Empires from Antiquity until Today, 2012, doctoral thesis, 332 p. – Department of Politics, University of London.

RODILES, Alexandro. ʻLaw and Violence in the Global South: The Legal Framing of Mexico´s “NARCO WAR”. Journal of Conflict and Security Law, v. 23, n. 2, p. 269-281, 2018.

ROSCHER, Bernhard. The “Renunciation of War as an Instrument of National Policy”. Journal of the History of International Law, v. 4, p. 293-309, 2002.

RUYS, Tom ʻArmed Attackʼ and Article 51 of the UN Charter. Cambridge: CUP, 2011.

SANGER, Andrew. The Contemporary Law of Blockade and the Gaza Freedom Flotilla. Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law, v. 13, p. 397-446, 2011.

SCHMITT, Michael N. Deconstructing Direct Participation in Hostilities: The Constitutive Elements. International Law & Politics, v. 42, p. 697-739, 2010.

SASSÒLI, Marco. Taking Armed Groups Seriously: Ways to Improve their Compliance with International Humanitarian Law. Journal of International Humanitarian Legal Studies, v. 1, n. 1, p. 5-51, 2010.

SCHOTTEN, Gregor and BIEHLER, Anke. The Role of the UN Security Council in Implementing International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law. In: ARNOLD, Roberta and QUÉNIVET, Noëlle N.R. (eds.). International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law: Towards a New Merger in International Law. Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publ., p. 277-313, 2008.

SCHREUER, Christoph. Derogation of Human Rights in Situations of Public Emergency: The Experience of the European Convention on Human Rights. Yale Journal of World Public Order, v. 9, n. 1, p. 113-132, 1982.

SHAW, Malcolm N. International Law. 9th ed. Cambridge/New York: CUP, 2021.

SIVAKUMARAN, Sandesh. The Law of Non-International Armed Conflict. Oxford: OUP, 2014.

SOLIS, Gary D. The Law of Armed Conflict. International Humanitarian Law in War. Cambridge: CUP, 2010.

STUMPF, Christoph A. The Grotian Theology of International Law: Hugo Grotius and the Moral Foundations of International Relations. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2006.

SVENSSON-MCCARTHY, Anna-Lena. The International Law of Human Rights and States of Exception. The Hague et al.: Martinus Nijhoff Publ., 1998.

THIELBÖRGER, Pierre. The International Law of the Use of Force and Transnational Organized Crime. In: HAUCK, Pierre and PETERKE, Sven (eds.). International Law and Transnational Organised Crime. Oxford: OUP, p. 361-379, 2016.

THÜRER, Daniel. International Law: Theory, Practice, Context. Maubeuge: Ail Pocket, 2011.

TURNS, David. The Law of Armed Conflict (International Humanitarian Law). In: EVANS, Malcolm D. (ed.). International Law. Oxford/New York: OUP, p. 821-845, 2014.

US SUPREME COURT. Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557, 633, 126 S. Ct. 2749, 2797 (2006).

VITÉ, Sylvain. Typology of armed conflicts in international humanitarian law: legal concepts and factual situations. International Review of the Red Cross, v. 91, n. 873, p. 69-94, 2009.

VON DER WILT, Harmen. Expanding Criminal Responsibility in Transnational and International Organised Crime. Groningen Journal of International Law, v. 4, n. 1, p. 1-9, 2016.

VAN DIJK, Peter and VAN HOOF, Godefridus J.H. Theory and Practice of the European Convention on Human Rights. 3rd ed. The Hague: Kluwer Law Int., 1998.

VAN STEENBERGE, Raphaël. Self-Defence in Response to Attacks by Non-State Actors in the Light of Recent State Practice: A Step Forward? Leiden Journal of International Law, v. 23, p. 183-208, 2010.

VAUTRAVERS, Alexandre. Military operations in urban areas. International Review of the Red Cross, v. 92, n. 878, p. 437-452, 2010.

VON BERNSDORFF, Jochen. The Use of Force in International Law Before World War I: On Imperial Ordering and the Ontology of the Nation-State. European Journal of International Law, v. 29, n. 1, p. 233-260, 2018.

VON CLAUSEWITZ, Claus. On War (transl. M. Howard & P. Paret). Washington D.C.: Princeton University Press, 1976.

VON LAMPE, Klaus. Organized Crime. Analyzing Illegal Activities, Criminal Structures, and Extra-legal Governance. London: SAGE, 2016.

WILSMHURST, Elisabeth. The Use of Force. In: MELZER, Nils and GEISS, Robin (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of International Law of Global Security. Oxford: OUP, 2021, p. 821-837.

WOLFRUM, Rüdiger (ed.). Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law. Index and Tables. Oxford/New York: OUP, 2013.

WRIGHT, Quincy. Changes in the Concept of War. American Journal of International Law, v. 18, n. 4, p. 755-767, Oct. 1924.




DOI: https://doi.org/10.5102/rdi.v20i1.9066

ISSN 2236-997X (impresso) - ISSN 2237-1036 (on-line)

Desenvolvido por:

Logomarca da Lepidus Tecnologia